Aquila Italian Historical gut Strings

Aquila Italian Historical gut Strings HV GUT (VARNISHED GUT STRINGS) INTRODUCTION The origin of the employment of gut to make musical strings is lost in the mists of time. Along the centuries manufacturing techniques were gradually refined until they reached the perfection unanimously recognized as the trademark of Italian and French string makers in the 17th to 19th century. The scope of our work, supported by constant research and painstaking experimentation, is to offer natural gut strings produced by modern craftsmen working in the ancient Italian/French string-makers manufacturing criteria that for centuries has been passed on from one generation to the next, sure to offer you the very best of our tradition and aiming to reach the magic of sound that only gut, of all materials, can achieve. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS AND FIELD OF APPLICATION First choice plain gut strings for general use in high and mid registers. All strings more than 0.50 mm. in diameter are exclusively high twist and undergo a specific processing aiming to ensure maximum elasticity and grant the best acoustical performance, ease of attack and long playing life, as proven by many acoustics and wear-and-tear tests. Varnished strings ( HV type) Polished varnished gut strings which merge the best of our knowledge of the early string making tradition field and modern treatments aimed to improve stability to climate changes and string durability. These strings have a varnished surface. The varnish we used does not come as casualty but as the result of a careful selection to ensure perfect compatibility with the elasticity of the gut, a perfect contact with the hairs of your bow , maximum protection to mechanical wear, to crease and stability to humidity changes. Demi-rectified strings (HR type) The surface of the demi- rectified strings is only partly rectified, imitating the manual polishing technique of the time just to obtain a true string. With this method the amount of fibres damaged by the abrasive action is noticeably reduced as compared with strings rectified with modern procedures. The advantages are: better stability against climatic changes, longer playing life and better acoustic performance. We tested these strings for a long time: they best imitate historic hand- polishing in that they damage only a small amount of gut fibres as compared with current rectifying methods. The advantages are: an improved stability by climatic changes, longer playing life (similar to those of the varnished ones) and superior acoustical performance. Owing to the special manufacturing technique employed in the production of the demi-rectified string type, the diameters in this table indicate a mean value. E.g. a 66 string indicates, in fact, a possible diameter-window between 65 and 67. IMPORTANT Gut is liable to suffer from cutting edges. Before stringing the instrument do make sure the nut and bridge are free from sharp edges and the nut grooves not too deep and perfectly smooth. You can get rid of sharp edges with very fine grit sandpaper (600, for example) or the finest steel wool (000). The best sound quality develops when the strings have completely set, which may ordinarily take some time. To achieve a stable intonation in just a few minutes you can repeatedly pinch each string in the middle with your fingers, pull it decidedly sideways and tune it up again. Stop when the string does not pull out of tune anymore. GENERAL QUESTIONS Remember: Those that are written darker are the most important ones WHY ARE GUT STRINGS SO EXPENSIVE? Because their manufacture is still mostly handwork and require a high degree of specialization: there are only a few of us left, worldwide, who know how to make the appropriate gut strings for historical stringing. Moreover, the whole string making process requires at least 10-12 uninterrupted days of work. FROM WHICH SOURCES DO WE KNOW THAT THE STRINGS OF THE STRING QUARTET WERE THICKER THAN THOSE WE COMMONLY USE TODAY? Both fromavailablehistorical sourceswe found in recent years and fromsurviving pieces of strings we believe to be original. HOW IMPORTANT IS, AS FAR AS QUALITY IS CONCERNED, THE COLOUR OF GUT STRINGS? The colour of a gut string has no influence whatsoevereither on acoustic performance or playing life.Natural colour varies from gut to gut. Extremely white strings (looking like nylon) could betray too strong a bleaching, though. IS IT TRUE THAT STRINGS MADE OF RAMS GUT CAN BE RECOGNIZED BY THEIR (TYPICAL) BROWN COLOUR? No, the gut of any animal, if unbleached, alwayshas a more or less brown colour; in other words, such a string (in our example rams gut) was not bleached and that was a string makers precise choice. IS IT TRUE THAT STRINGS MADE OF LAMBS GUT ARE BETTER THAN THOSE MADE OF SHEEPS, BEEFS OR RAMS GUT? No. A strings acoustical quality depends mainly on two factors: density of the material and the elasticity. Historical relevance apart, all these materials possess the same density (at the end of the day it is all dry meat).The elasticity, on the other hand, exclusively depends on how the string maker produced the string (high or low twist, with the addition of hardening salts & c.).Tests carried out with a double blind method have proven itimpossible to detect anyacoustical difference. In any case it is reported that up to the mid-17th century in different Italian regions the guts of sheep, lamb, ram, goat, wolf, beef could be indifferently used (see A. Kirchers Musurgia Universalis, Rome 1650). WHY DO MODERN STRINGMAKERS USE GUTS CUT INTO STRANDS INSTEAD OF WHOLE GUTS? First of all, the cleaving of gut into strands to be twisted into musical strings is a technique that was already in use in the second half the 16th century (see the roman and Neapolitan string makers statutes from 1589 and 1653) and was certainly common in the second half of the 18th century. The problem is that we do not know at least not in every detail the early steps in the historic whole gut manufacturing technique anymore. Besides, we must point out that it is, generally speaking, nearly impossible to find lambs gut that is so thin as to allow us to achieve a historic violin top string made of three whole guts.In practice we always obtain noticeably thicker strings and that is a definite proof that the gut does not come from real lamb (i.e. less than one year old): hence the need to split the guts in half in order to obtain thinner strands.On the other hand we must point out that strings made of gut strands (again, a historically correct method) are of high quality and grant a long playing life. WHY CANT I USE HISTORICAL GAUGES ON MY VIOLIN/VIOLA/CELLO? There are several possible reasons: you havent got used to playing with thicker strings than my usual, yet; thicker strings often exert too much pressure on the sound board and that damps the sound: the pressure can be diminished by reducing the angle of the strings in relation to the bridge by way of raising the string holder at the bottom of the instrument (a solution also adopted in the past) or, if possible, reducing the height of the bridge.WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HIGH TWIST AND A LOW TWIST STRING?The material being the same, elasticity and resistance are inversely proportional and that is why it is not possible to usehigh twist strings as trebles, since they would easily break.WHAT IS A SEMI-RECTIFIED STRING?With half-rectified strings the polishing process is stopped before a completely smooth surface is obtained.WHAT CARE DO GUT STRINGS REQUIRE?This will extend their playing life.Lacking deer fat, booth grease will also do successfully tested.No particular care.Should the core,under exceptionally cold or dry climatic conditions,buzz inside the winding, the string can be treated with olive or almond oil.In the past it was used to tell a good string from a false one. You pull a string taut, one end in each hand, and you pluck it repeatedly with one finger, carefully watching the cone of vibration.Today, thanks to modern rectification, this test is generally unnecessary.The Breaking Indexis the higher frequency a gut stringof any diametercan reach at a string length of 1mt. For both gut and Nylgut a mean value of 260 Hz.mt is a good reference parameter. In other words, a 1 meter long string gut or Nylgut will statistically always break at 260 Hz, i.e. about C.Hence we deduce that the product of the pitch of the treble and by the string length (more properly called Working Index) must always be below this value, under pain of immediately breaking the string at values over 260 or a very short playing life at values between 240 and 260. No problems below 240.Example: can I tune in A 440 a lute with a string length of 62cm?Whatshould the appropriate string length be? A safe index should not exceed the 240 value.Rule of thumb (assuming the system bridge-string-nut is free from any so called cutting effect): So: 240/440 Hz = .545 mt. In practice the appropriate string length (at A-440) should not exceed 54 cm. .62 mt (62cm) x 440 (Hz) = 272.8 Hz.mt The answer is: no, I cant. What is its practical use? WHAT IS A STRINGS BREAKING INDEX? The cone of vibration must be regular and sharp at the outer sides and free from fuzzy lines in the middle.This test was commonly done because the hand polished strings allowed for gauge irregularities along the finished string. WHAT IS A STRINGS QUALITY TEST (SO-CALLED MERSENNES TEST)? WHAT CARE DO WOUND STRINGS REQUIRE? No particular care.But in the caseof the Double bass it is advisable to treat the length of the string subject to the action of the left hand with deer fat. Thus it is possible toimitate the hand polishing of the past and also the surface fibres remain mostly intact.This results in a longer playing life; better keeping in tune and better acoustic performance (broken fibres have a damping effect on the sound). Modern gut strings are machine -polished to a perfectly smooth surface, which inevitably damages the surface fibres. Low twist strings are best suited for Trebles but not best suited for the mid-register strings, where the acoustic performance would be impoverished. A very important one: ahigh twist string is much more elastic and that means an increased reactivity: the string will respond more easily both to plucking and to bowing and produce a wider dynamic excursion and timbre variety.On the other hand a low twist string, being stiffer, is less reactive but more resistant under stress and thus suitable for all trebles in general. To learn more: please visit the site of Damian:www.damianstrings.com/baroque%20set-up.htm Working index within 240:green light. Working index between 250 and 260:amberlight(the treble could break in a few hours/days, especially by high humidity). Working index over 260:red light(the treble will break immediately or within minutes).WHAT IS THE ACOUSTICAL LOWER LIMIT OF A GUT STRING?Here, too, it could be express in terms of Acoustic Quality Index, i.e. the product of string length by frequency. Empirically we can say that on a mean size g- tuning lute (60-62 cm s.l. nowadays) a 1mm high twist string (5th course) is dull to the point of requiring an octave.What is its practical use?Rule of thumb: Itis useful in deciding, when we calculate our diameters, when we have reached the point where we should switch from a plain gut, Nylgut or Nylon string to a wound one. A diameter of 1.40 mm (6th course in a G tuning Lute) is the lower acceptable limit for a double twist string (Venice type).On bowed instruments this limit can empirically be increased by a factor of 1.10. Its the maximum diameter able to produce an acoustic performance which is generally regarded as (still) acceptable to our ears (in other words, itsinharmonicity level).This limit is empirical and is above all a function of the string- elasticity.Other relevant factors are string length, whether the string is bowed or plucked, quality of the instrument and working tension. Because of the lack of the instrument size standardization, it is important to verify whether medieval lutes and harps satisfy these values, but also where exact copies of original instruments, lutes first of all, are concerned original string lengths were optimized for the pitches used by the customers of the time, and the pitches commonly in use today are usually higher. Acoustic Quality Index below 100: a gut/Nylgut/Nylon string begins to lose its acoustical quality (e.g. on a Lute we need octaves). Acoustic Quality Index below 80: we need to switch to a wound or loaded string.Today you can do it with a high-precision micrometre.Luis Spohrs gauge is a metal plate with an acute V with gauges scored on the edges: the string slid in until it touches both sides of the V. at this point we read its gauge value.Marin Mersenne (Harmonie universelle, Paris 1636) suggests winding the string around a small cylinder a given number of times, measuring its length and dividing by the number of spires. This method, obviously, allows for a certain margin of approximation. We have no record of similar methods being used in the 18th century. One must zero it exactly and be careful not to squash the string while measuring to avoid false readings.And in the past?From about 1830 into the mid-20th century they used a gauge (the first description of one is in Luis Spohrs Violinschule, Vienna 1832). HOW DO I MEASURE A STRINGS DIAMETER? HOW WERE STRINGS SOLD IN THE PAST? Present string gauging is a relatively modern praxis, adopted after the introduction of precision mechanical polishing. Up to the beginning of the 20th century a strings diameter was first of all determined by the number of guts employed to manufacture it. A violin treble, for example,was generally made of three guts. This means that, gut being a non-standardisable natural product, the resulting string was not of a constant diameter but fell withina possible diameter bracket. In our violin example the string obtained with three whole lamb guts would have a diameter of between .65 and .75 mm, most probably .68-.70 mm.Strings were usually sold in oiled envelopes containing 30 to 50 strings, all made of the same number of guts:first of all the musician had to select the true strings from the false ones see Mersennes test and then select with a gauge and put aside the ones that were too thin or too thick for his purpose. WHY ARE GUT STRINGS SOMETIMES VARNISHED? Gut strings are varnished in order to protect the strings from wear and tear.The varnishing of strings is not a historical process; the earliest samples of varnished strings we have found only date back to the 1920-30s. A varnished string has a somewhat a bit of a duller sound and the attack under the bow can be sometime slightly more difficult and liable to whistle. WHAT CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN WITH THE NUT AND BRIDGE GROOVES? A large number of strings break because of the cutting effectof sharp edges on bridge and nut. Thomas Mace in 1676 advises: take a knife and make a little impression upon the nut (which) must afterwards be filed down deep enough for the string to lye in after you have marked the places for all strings to lye in, which may be done with a pencil or pen and ink you must take it (the nut) and polish it very well (but especially the notches) take a piece of newneats-leather and a little scraped chalk wet in spittle, which with good pains must be rubbed so long till the notches be very smooth. All sharp edges and angles must be accurately eliminated. Only after this operation apply some soft pencil lead or very dry soap to the groove. This will not only help tuning and keeping in tune but also prevents the string from squashing and jamming in the groove, increasing the probability of breakage.Robert Dowland, in his Varietie of lute lessons, London 1610, suggests: when you set them on the instrument they will sticke (and rise by starts) in the nut, and there breake, even in the tuning: the best remedy when the strings sticke so, is tu rub the little nickes of the nut (in which the strings slide) with a little oyle, waxe, or black lead. I CHECKED THE DIAMETER OF A GUT STRING A NOTICED THAT IT SOMETIMES IS SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT FROM THAT DECLARED ON THE STRING ENVELOPE: IS THE STRING FAULTY? No, gut is an extremely hygroscopic materialand the amount of humidity absorbed can slightly alter the string diameter. On humid days a string will probably present a slightly thicker diameter, on dry days a slightly thinner one. Practical tests show that a .82mm string on a humid day can measure .84, or .80 on a particularly dry day. The diameters shown on our string envelopes refer to a standard condition of 20C and 60% relative humidity. Such variations influence the string working tensiononly minimally. HOW SHOULD I STORE MY STRINGS? The main enemy of gut strings is humidity: keep them in plastic envelopes or in air tight boxes. A carefully stored string will keep its quality for many decades. HOW DO I TAKE CARE OF BUZZING IN HISTORICAL WOUND-ON-GUT STRINGS? Historical wound strings, lacking a damper between core and wound wire, in particularly dry climate may present this problem. Tutors of the past (e.g. Friedrich Dotzauers Mthode de violoncelle, Paris c. 1830) suggest lightly wetting the whole string with a few drops of olive or almond oil in order to have the gut core swell lightly and make full contact with the winding again. Never use water! HOW SHOULD I PREPARE A LUTE TO BE STRUNG WITH GUT? Making sure there are no sharp edges anywhere where they may cause a cutting effect (nut, bridge, string holder see faq 20). The length of string winding on the peg should be as short as possible, avoiding any overlapping spires (which affect the tuning stability) and squashing and jamming the string against the peg box side (see Thos. Maces Musicks monument, London 1676). Lutes: we suggest you to visit this very interesting work made by the luthier Jiri Cepelak:https://lute.cepelak.cz/care.pdf WHAT IS THE WORKING INDEX OF A STRING? The Working Index is the product of string length (in mt.) multiplied by treble pitch (in Hz) and indicates whether the chosen string length is right for the intended tuning. In other words (see faq 14) whether we risk breaking the treble (when the string length is too long) or a poor sound quality (too short strings produce a duller sound).On lutes and violins it is advisable to keep the Breaking Index in the 230-240 Hz x mt bracket, with the treble working close to its breaking point and granting the best possible sound in the bass register. WHAT IS NYLGUT? Nylgut is a synthetic material we discovered and copyrighted in 1997: it has the same mean specific weight as gut and a low degree of humidity absorption only 10% that of nylon. We could even call it synthetic gut. In theory a gut string and a Nylgut one should have the same diameter. But since nylgut is quite stretchy we advise using a slightly thicker diameter. Pull carefully but resolutely and repeatedly the string with your fingers while tuning it for the first time Because of the bow slips on it, Nylgut strings cannot be used on bowed instruments. WHAT WERE TYPICAL STRING QUARTET STRINGINGS IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES? This isa fairly vast topicand we suggest this further reading. In a nut shell: Violin: gut for the three top strings, wire wound on gut for the fourth. A wound third is historically incorrect. Although in the 18th century and exclusively in France an open wound D string was used, this in the 19th century was substituted with plain gut. Viola:gut top two strings, wound third and fourth. Cello:until ca. 1730: gut top three strings wound fourth; wound third and fourth afterwards. Three string Double bass:gut top two strings, third either plain gut or wound. Four string Double bass:as above, wound fourth.WHAT ARE THE TECHNOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MODERN AND HISTORICAL WOund STRINGS? Historical wound strings present the following general features: Here we must point out how modern wound strings (flat metal winding on a rather stiff gut core; silk padding between gut core and metal winding; different, metal biased,gut core to winding ratio from that of historical strings) heavily change the real expressive qualities of historic stringings. Low or high twist gut core. Round metal wire winding. No silk padding between core and metal winding. Metal wire of silver, silvered copper, plain copper or its alloys (brass). Different gut/wire ratio than the modern wound strings. Modern wound strings: Flat metal winding. Stiff, low twist core. Silk padding between core and metal winding. Employment of modern alloys like tungsten, nickel, &c. Metal-biased gut/wire ratio.WHAT SORT OF WOUND STRINGS WERE IN USE IN THE 17TH TO 19TH CENTURIES? Three sorts: Hence the acoustical differences are quite noticeable and interest both dynamic and timbre aspects. Close wound: the single wire spires are tightly wound touching one another. It is the still commonly used sort. Double wound: a second close wound layer is laid over the first one. Because of the large quantity of metal wound on the gut core they were employed on instruments with a short string length but requiring a low tuning, e.g. violoncello da spalla, 5th double bass string &c. Open wound: the single wire was wound so that the spires would not touch one another but with a space in between equal or slightly wider than the wire diameter (see F. le Cocq, Paris 1724); these strings were in use exclusivelyin the in 18th century as transition betweenplain gutmid-register and close wound basses, e.g. Bass viol 4th, violin 3rd &c.The concept of equal tension as expressed in equal number of kg ismodern one, probably making its first appearance about 1860 (Maugin-Magne, Nouveau manuel complet du luthier).Up to the mid-18th century the tension of a string was exclusively understood in terms of feeling of stiffnessto the touch, which is something different from the way we understand it today.While the amount of tension is solely expressed in kg, a feelingis conditioned by a number of parameters, such as string length (this is why theorbo-diapasons, if tuned with exactly the same tension, feel so much slackerthan the fretted strings), type of string and diameter.In conclusion, the string type being equal, a set of string, in order to present afeeling ofequal tension, must actually have scaled tensions.WHAT SHOULD I DO WHEN I PUT A NEW STRING ON?This applies to both gut and synthetic strings, especially to Nylgut.Follow Thos. Robinsons advice (begin of the 17th century) and tune the treble a bit lower, thus reducing string-stress.Quite a substantial one: research on historical sources and observation of surviving pieces of original strings point to the use of not onlythicker than commonly in use today, but also hand polished (hence not perfectly smooth) strings.Now, choosing to use historical string diameters can sometimes lead to a readjustment of the instruments set up especially concerning the angle of the strings on the bridge which sometimes the instrument itself does not accept very willingly.HOW DO I WORK OUT THE RIGHT WORKING TENSION?In other words, there are no specific mathematical formulaefor it. What we do suggest is: put a 2nd or 3rd string on the instrument of a diameter you consider adequate (bowed or plucked, the process is the same).Lower or raise the pitch by as many semitones as necessary to bring it to the righttension, that is to the point where it feels rightto you, neither too slack not too taut. Now apply the following indications: Tune the string to the wanted pitch and check whether it feels too slack or too taut according to your own perception. Finding the right working tension for each instrument is basically an empirical process, depending on type of instrument, type of string and personal musical attitude. This is why besides a historical stringing (which we always find desirable) we also propose a modern one (in light, medium and heavy grading). WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HISTORICAL AND MODERN STRINGING PRAXIS (VIOLIN, VIOL, CELLO)? WHAT SHOULD I DO WHEN I AM NOT GOING TO PLAY FOR SOME TIME? Once checked that all points ofcontact are smooth and free from sharp edges, when tuning a string for the first time, pull it with your fingers until it stays in tune: moderately the trebles and wound strings but with a bit more energy the thicker ones. Click herefor further details. In a set where all the strings are calculated with the same tension in mind will feelquite different to the touch: this contradicts the criteria of the 16th and 17th centuries, which require that all strings present a homogeneous feeling under the fingers. -WHY CANT WE CONSIDER EQUAL TENSION STRINGING A HISTORICAL OPTION? The string was originally too taut:multiply its diameter by .944 by the number of semitones by which you decreased the starting pitch (.944 reduces a given diameter by a semitone). The string was originally too slack:multiply its diameter by 1.059 by the number of semitones by which you raised the starting pitch (1.059 increases a given pitch by a semitone)Solution:starting from the string tuned at the wanted pitch, raise it semitone by semitone until the tension feels subjectively right. Let us suppose you raised it by two semitones: multiply 82 by 1.059 twice: the diameter you want is 91.9(6) mm, i.e. a 91 available as standard on the market.There can be several causes, sometimes more than one at once.WHY DID THE STRING BREAK AS SOON AS I PUT IT ON THE INSTRUMENT? There are three possible reasons: A very common one is oil leftovers from manufacturing: clean them carefully with a rag damped with white spirit. WHY DO MY STRINGS WHISTLE UNDER THE BOW? Example:I put a .82 third stringon my lute (or any bowed instrument) and it feels too slack. The string is faulty. The string length is too long (exceeding the Breaking Index). Some point of contact between string and nut, bridge or string holder has a sharp edge or is lacking appropriate lubrication (i.e. pencil-graphite etc.). Faulty string:generally it does not break cleanly but through progressive fraying, usually announced by little hairs rising along its length. Excessive string length: check whether the product string length by frequency is in excess of 240, regardless of type ofinstrument: lute, baroque guitar, fiddles and medieval instruments in general. The cutting effectof sharp edges usually results in a sudden and clean break. It can also be caused by nicks in the string, as consequence of careless.I USED A VENICE STRING AS TREBLE: WHY DID IT BREAK IMMEDIATELY?But being elasticity and resistance to stress inversely proportional this type of string should not be used where the Working Index (i.e. the product of string length by frequency) exceeds 140Hz x mt (which generally is the working index of treble strings).DE wound strings were conceived with the purpose of filling in a gap in the area of bass strings for short extension archlutes and swan-neck baroque lutes.I PUT ON MY INSTRUMENT A VENICE TYPE STRING OF THE SAME DIAMETER AS THE PREVIOUS HIGH TWIST PLAIN GUT AND IT FEELS MUCH SLACKER: WHY IS THAT?But in practice this happens only if the strings are also manufactured in the same, identical manner.Because of its nature a Venice string stretches noticeably more than a regular high twist string, which leads, under equal stress, to a somewhat thinner diameter.In practice the correct diameter of an equivalent Venice string is obtained by multiplying the plain high twist string diameter by 1.07.No,historical evidencehas proven that both six course (in late 18th and early 19th centuries Spain) and six string guitars were only strung with wound on silk basses. silk was used until nylon multifilament was introduced about 1950s.No, presently available evidence (with particular reference to the tutors of Sor, Carulli and Aguado) shows thatthe same diameters were used as on the violin; string tensions are practically comparable to those of the modern classical guitar.Besides, the tension profile was less scaled than commercially available guitars sets suggest today.I TRIED SOME VENICE TYPE AS BASS STRINGS ON MY BASS VIOL, BUT I AM NOT SATISFIED SINCE THEY SOUND VERY DULL (ESPECIALLY THE SIXTH DOES): WHY IS THAT?Before the adoption of wound strings which made their first appearance in the second half of the 17th century the Gamba family had noticeably longer string lengths than those commonly in use today.From Mersennes tables was calculated that the bass viol had a string length of c. 85 cm against the 68-70cm commonly in use today.Historical instruments were designed with a longer string length in order to have the trebles work close to their breaking point (Working index not lower than 220 Hz x m see faq14).In fact string length and diameter are inversely proportional.Solutions to the problem?Basically three: Reducing a strings diameter (tension being equal, of course) is always beneficial to the quality of sound and bow attack. Exactly what basses, the most problematic of all strings, need? If, on the other hand, the strings length is reduced they will have to be thicker, which will negatively influence the sound quality because of the strings increased inner damping coefficient(inharmonicity index). This was the only way to grant every string the minimum diameterpossible , basses first of all. Likewise modern tenor viols have 55-56cm against the 58-62 which were common in the late 16th / early 17th centuries. This is a fairly frequent problem and is generally not to be blamed on the strings. The main causeis that the instruments string length istoo short for the required pitch if you intend to string your instrument entirely with gut. We advise to always carefully check whether the bridge is soundly glued in place before stringing an original guitar with a modern string set. The one exception is the 19th century Neapolitan guitar (Fabricatore,for example): some documents point to tensions slightly lighter than on the violin. IS IT TRUE THAT THE GUITAR IN THE 19TH CENTURY WAS NOTICEABLY LIGHTER STRUNG THAN TODAY? IS IT TRUE THAT IN THE 19TH CENTURY WOUND ON GUT CORE STRINGS WERE USED ON THE GUITAR? Hence the necessity to use a thicker starting diameter: under working stress it will settle to a diameter similar to that of a regular strings and will eventually lead to the same working tension. In other words they must stretch by same amount under the same stress, thus reducing their diameter by the same amount (empirically proven by the same amount of peg turns needed to tune them). According to the string formula two strings of the same material and same gauge, string length and pitch being equal, will also have the same working tension provided the diameter remains the same also under stress. The ratio nylgut core / metal winding is core biased, in order to counterbalance the typical sound of regular wound string, characterized by a very long sustain, rich in overtones and poor in fundamental. in other words a bit too guitar-like.On the other hand DE wound strings on fretted courses are quite fundamental-heavy and require the use of octaves. Like in the old times, in fact. The core bias is aimed to recreating the sound of ourloaded gut basses. I PUT DE TYPE WOUND BASSES ON MY LUTE BUT THEY SEEM TO BE A BIT DULL COMPARED WITH OTHER WOUND STRINGS. WHY IS THAT? Venice strings possess a high degree of elasticity, noticeably more than a high twist string. Notice: the string breaks under tension: if the damage took place at the nut edge, for instance, the breakage will seem to correspond to, say, the second or third fret, since the string is no more under stress. likewise, if the damage took place at the bridge, it will seem to have broken somewhere between it and the string holder. Use instruments with string lengths typical of the period preceding the appearance of wound strings, i.e. 82-85cm for the Bass, c. 61 for the Tenor and c. 41 for the Treble (see proportions in Thos. Maces Musiks monument, London 1676). This way gut strings will give an excellent, prompt sound. If possible (i.e. if the bridge height allows), move the bridge towards the base of the C cuts, thus increasing the string length and improving the acoustical performance in general (do remember to calculate the string diameters keeping this added factor in mind). Employ wound strings (but only in case a more appropriate instrument is not available or you are not willing to lower the bridge position which is a historically correcttrick).A gut string that has been sharply bent shows a whitish nick at the bending point.Signs of serious damage are: This indicates a slight loss of fibre cohesion butdoes not mean at all that the string was damaged.The string is still perfectly intact. -IS IT TRUE THAT A SHARPLY BENT STRING COMPLETELY DAMAGED? the string has been indented the fibres became untwisted to the point of coming apart and the string is not cylindrical anymore.Try knotting the string the way the ancients did: Unfortunately there is no exact procedure about it; you simply have to try experimentally with each string. To be avoided with wound strings, though!Yes. Knowing the diameter is useful for strings made of only one material, like plain gut, Nylon, Nylgut or any metal. Wound strings are composed of different materials and so they can be defined according to the following parameters: I THOUGHt THAT GIVING YOU THE DIAMETER OF MY WOUND STRING FOR REPLACEMENT, BUT I HEARD THAT IS USELESS: IS THAT TRUE? MY INSTRUMENT HAS A WOLF: WHAT CAN I DO ABOUT IT? Equivalent Solid Gut Metallicity IndexSince wound strings are made by coupling different materials we decided to define them in terms of equivalent solid gut: in practice we refer to the diameter of a theoretical gut string possessing the same weight per unit of length as the wound string in question. For the same pitch and string length well thus have the same working tension. And this is important to work out our string diameters.Answer: we weigh the string on a scale reading weight in grams and we measure the length of the string. We then divide the weight in grams by the length in meters and then take the square root of the result: that will give us our equivalent in millimetres.Metallicity IndexThe higher the gut component, the duller will the sound tend to be, the higher the metal component the brighter the sound. So the correct metal-to-gut ratio mainly depends on the particular timbre/dynamic mixture any given combination can produce and is subjectively felt as aestheticallypleasing.The Metallicity Index is also connected with the position of the string on the instrument. The third string on a cello must clearly have a lower Metallicity Index than the fourth, which must have a higher percentage of metal in order to compensate the loss in brightness caused by the lowerAcoustic Quality Index for such string position (see Q 15).Let us take, for example, thethird string of botha viola da braccio and a cello. On the viola da braccio C we will find a noticeably higher Metallicity Index than on the cello G. And this is why we cannot use a cello G in place of a viol C: the working tension might even turn out to be correct, but the acoustical result will be completely unsatisfactory. Two strings of the same gut equivalent value can possess a completely different Metallicity Index. In other words, there is no objective formula in deciding what the right mixture is. Once decided what the gut equivalence, i.e. thecorrect working tension, of a string should be, the ratio metal to gut can only be worked out through experience. The same equivalent solid gutcan be reached by numberless percentage relationships between gut and metal. Obviously increasing the one implies decreasing the other by the amount that is necessary for keeping the weightof the string, i.e. itsequivalent solid gut,constant. Example: the wound string weighs 35.5g and is 98 cm long: 35.5g/0.98 m = 36.22, whose square root is 6.05. In practical termsour wound string is equivalent to a 6mm thick plain gut string. How can we work out the equivalent solid gut of a wound string we want to replace and we know nothing about? Equivalent Solid Gut

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